The importance of wilderness to wolf (Canis lupus) survival and cause-specific mortality over 50 years

We assessed the relative importance of wilderness to gray wolf (Canis lupus) population dynamics over 50 years in a that 1) was long extant (i.e., not reintroduced or recolonized), 2) subject harvest our study area until recently, and 3) used both adjacent, mainly public, non-wilderness. analyzed survival radiocollared wolves (n = 756 collared-wolf tenures) during 1968–2018 Superior National Forest, Minnesota, USA, including Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness. Over years, adult annual 78%. Wolves captured tended exhibit higher than those non-wilderness, but difference more pronounced post-harvest when remained relatively high non-wilderness dropped (relative pre-harvest). During Nov–Apr pre-harvest for adults, natural mortality rate similar (both 6%), anthropogenic (7% versus 1%), as illegal (5% 1%). were less likely die (p 0.042; hazard ratio 0.59), pups adults 0.002; 1.84), males females 0.053; 0.73). Our long-term survival, cause-specific mortality, results will inform management agencies whenever are delisted, jurisdiction them passes states.